Marie curie biography scientist

Polish-French physicist and chemist (–)

This article is about the Polish-French physicist. For the musician, grasp Marie Currie. For other uses, see Marie Curie (disambiguation).

Maria Salomea Skłodowska-Curie^[a] (Polish:[ˈmarjasalɔˈmɛaskwɔˈdɔfskakʲiˈri]^ⓘ; née&#;Skłodowska; 7 Nov – 4 July ), get around simply as Marie Curie (KURE-ee;^[1]French:[maʁikyʁi]), was a Polish and naturalised-French physicist and chemist who conducted pioneering research on radioactivity. She was the first woman add up win a Nobel Prize, depiction first person to win boss Nobel Prize twice, and representation only person to win natty Nobel Prize in two orderly fields. Her husband, Pierre Chemist, was a co-winner of unqualified first Nobel Prize, making them the first married couple get closer win the Nobel Prize leading launching the Curie family heirloom of five Nobel Prizes. She was, in , the gain victory woman to become a lecturer at the University of Paris.^[2]

She was born in Warsaw, show what was then the Native land of Poland, part of rendering Russian Empire. She studied tempt Warsaw's clandestine Flying University skull began her practical scientific practice in Warsaw. In , ancient 24, she followed her older sister Bronisława to study accumulate Paris, where she earned in return higher degrees and conducted in exchange subsequent scientific work. In , she married the French physicist Pierre Curie, and she mutual the Nobel Prize in Physics with him and with primacy physicist Henri Becquerel for their pioneering work developing the point of "radioactivity"—a term she coined.^[3][4] In , Pierre Curie in a good way in a Paris street death. Marie won the Nobel Enjoy in Chemistry for her observe of the elements polonium bid radium, using techniques she trumped-up for isolating radioactive isotopes. Adorn her direction, the world's twig studies were conducted into interpretation treatment of neoplasms by distinction use of radioactive isotopes. She founded the Curie Institute forecast Paris in , and character Curie Institute in Warsaw make a fuss ; both remain major medicine roborant research centres. During World Conflict I, she developed mobile skiagraphy units to provide X-ray putting into play to field hospitals.

While unadorned French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Physicist, who used both surnames,^[5][6] in no way lost her sense of Clean identity. She taught her successors the Polish language and took them on visits to Poland.^[7] She named the first synthetic element she discovered polonium, name her native country.^[b] Marie Chemist died in , aged 66, at the Sancellemozsanatorium in Passy (Haute-Savoie), France, of aplastic symptom likely from exposure to rays in the course of respite scientific research and in position course of her radiological labour at field hospitals during Globe War I.^[9] In addition get at her Nobel Prizes, she habitual numerous other honours and tributes; in she became the pull it off woman to be entombed grab hold of her own merits in ethics Paris Panthéon,^[10] and Poland certified the Year of Marie Physicist during the International Year comprehensive Chemistry. She is the interrogation of numerous biographical works.

Life and career

Early years

Maria Skłodowska was born in Warsaw, in Relation Poland in the Russian Imperium, on 7 November , birth fifth and youngest child help well-known teachers^[11] Bronisława, née Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.^[12] The senior siblings of Maria (nicknamed Mania) were Zofia (born , nicknamed Zosia), Józef&#;[pl] (born , nicknamed Józio), Bronisława (born , nicknamed Bronia) and Helena (born , nicknamed Hela).^[13][14]

On both the kindly and maternal sides, the descent had lost their property person in charge fortunes through patriotic involvements entertain Polish national uprisings aimed take into account restoring Poland's independence (the ascendant recent had been the Jan Uprising of –).^[15] This bewitched the subsequent generation, including Part and her elder siblings, put the finishing touches to a difficult struggle to realize ahead in life.^[15] Maria's defensive grandfather, Józef Skłodowski had back number principal of the Lublin foremost school attended by Bolesław Prus,^[16] who became a leading badge in Polish literature.^[17]

Władysław Skłodowski infinite mathematics and physics, subjects range Maria was to pursue, stand for was also director of couple Warsaw gymnasia (secondary schools) rationalize boys. After Russian authorities debarred laboratory instruction from the Typeface schools, he brought much be more or less the laboratory equipment home paramount instructed his children in secure use.^[13] He was eventually pink-slipped by his Russian supervisors intend pro-Polish sentiments and forced approval take lower-paying posts; the kinfolk also lost money on straighten up bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income infant lodging boys in the house.^[13] Maria's mother Bronisława operated elegant prestigious Warsaw boarding school footing girls; she resigned from goodness position after Maria was born.^[13] She died of tuberculosis mission May , when Maria was ten years old.^[13] Less pat three years earlier, Maria's in the beginning sibling, Zofia, had died make public typhus contracted from a boarder.^[13] Maria's father was an atheistic, her mother a devout Catholic.^[18] The deaths of Maria's and sister caused her collect give up Catholicism and develop agnostic.^[19]

When she was ten mature old, Maria began attending Count. Sikorska's boarding school; next she attended a gymnasium (secondary school) for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June show a gold medal.^[12] After deft collapse, possibly due to depression,^[13] she spent the following epoch in the countryside with dearest of her father, and loftiness next year with her curate in Warsaw, where she upfront some tutoring.^[12] Unable to come to have accept in a regular institution fall foul of higher education because she was a woman, she and sister Bronisława became involved pick up the clandestine Flying University (sometimes translated as "Floating University"), unembellished Polish patriotic institution of advanced learning that admitted women students.^[12][13]

Maria made an agreement with prepare sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance away Bronisława's medical studies in Town, in exchange for similar support two years later.^[12][20] In blockade with this, Maria took great position first as a fine tutor in Warsaw, then carry out two years as a companion in Szczuki with a material family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.^[12][20] From way back working for the latter parentage, she fell in love meet their son, Kazimierz Żorawski, elegant future eminent mathematician.^[20] His parents rejected the idea of cap marrying the penniless relative, title Kazimierz was unable to thing them.^[20] Maria's loss of righteousness relationship with Żorawski was unhappy for both. He soon condign a doctorate and pursued fraudster academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and pastor of Kraków University. Still, reorganization an old man and a-one mathematics professor at the Warsaw Polytechnic, he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Part Skłodowska that had been erected in before the Radium League, which she had founded pressure ^[15][21]

At the beginning of , Bronisława—who a few months a while ago had married Kazimierz Dłuski, straight Polish physician and social highest political activist—invited Maria to wed them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not give the university tuition; it would take her a year become more intense a half longer to include the necessary funds.^[12] She was helped by her father, who was able to secure splendid more lucrative position again.^[20] Keep happy that time she continued stage educate herself, reading books, swap letters, and being tutored herself.^[20] In early she returned make to her father in Warsaw.^[12] She continued working as spruce governess and remained there unsettled late ^[20] She tutored, spurious at the Flying University, careful began her practical scientific loyalty (–) in a chemistry region at the Museum of Diligence and Agriculture at Krakowskie Przedmieście 66, near Warsaw's Old Town.^[12][13][20] The laboratory was run via her cousin Józef Boguski, who had been an assistant think about it Saint Petersburg to the Land chemist Dmitri Mendeleyev.^[12][20][22]

Life in Paris

In late , she left Polska for France.^[23] In Paris, Region (or Marie, as she would be known in France) succinctly found shelter with her nurture and brother-in-law before renting dinky garret closer to the tradition, in the Latin Quarter, spreadsheet proceeding with her studies mimic physics, chemistry, and mathematics continue to do the University of Paris, circle she enrolled in late ^[24][25] She subsisted on her sound the alarm resources, keeping herself warm by way of cold winters by wearing talented the clothes she had. She focused so hard on arrangement studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.^[25] Skłodowska studied textile the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. Edict , she was awarded precise degree in physics and began work in an industrial work of Gabriel Lippmann. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the Rule of Paris and with say publicly aid of a fellowship she was able to earn clean second degree in ^[12][25][c]

Skłodowska abstruse begun her scientific career prize open Paris with an investigation medium the magnetic properties of diverse steels, commissioned by the The people for the Encouragement of Resolute Industry.^[25] That same year, Pierre Curie entered her life: set up was their mutual interest grind natural sciences that drew them together.^[26] Pierre Curie was arrive instructor at The City interrupt Paris Industrial Physics and Alchemy Higher Educational Institution (ESPCI Paris).^[12] They were introduced by Burnish physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski, who locked away learned that she was superior for a larger laboratory room, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre could access.^[12][25] Though Curie outspoken not have a large region, he was able to stroke of luck some space for Skłodowska ring she was able to engender work.^[25]

Their mutual passion for principles brought them increasingly closer, point of view they began to develop soul for one another.^[12][25] Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at leading Skłodowska did not accept in that she was still planning flesh out go back to her indigenous country. Curie, however, declared defer he was ready to incorporate with her to Poland, level if it meant being brief to teaching French.^[12] Meanwhile, transport the summer break, Skłodowska mutual to Warsaw, where she visited her family.^[25] She was immobilize labouring under the illusion become absent-minded she would be able kindhearted work in her chosen globe in Poland, but she was denied a place at Kraków University because of sexism crush academia.^[15] A letter from Pierre convinced her to return motivate Paris to pursue a PhD.^[25] At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie difficult to understand written up his research shaking magnetism and received his household doctorate in March ; unquestionable was also promoted to don at the School.^[25] A coexistent quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery".^[15]

On 26 July , they were married in Sceaux;^[27] neither wanted a religious service.^[12][25] Curie's dark blue outfit, drawn instead of a bridal garment, would serve her for visit years as a laboratory outfit.^[25] They shared two pastimes: hold up bicycle trips and journeys far, which brought them even overtures. In Pierre, Marie had fragment a new love, a spouse, and a scientific collaborator be in charge of whom she could depend.^[15]

New elements

In , Wilhelm Röntgen discovered leadership existence of X-rays, though description mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.^[28] In , Henri Becquerel discovered that metal salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.^[28] He demonstrated that this emanation, unlike phosphorescence, did not bank on an external source refer to energy but seemed to get out of bed spontaneously from uranium itself. Counterfeit by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look ways uranium rays as a feasible field of research for pure thesis.^[12][28]

She used an innovative come close to investigate samples. Fifteen grow older earlier, her husband and tiara brother had developed a break of the electrometer, a thin-skinned device for measuring electric charge.^[28] Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a average to conduct electricity. Using that technique, her first result was the finding that the energy of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity work uranium present.^[28] She hypothesized avoid the radiation was not interpretation outcome of some interaction past its best molecules but must come unfamiliar the atom itself.^[28] This theory was an important step sight disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.^[28][29]

In , her chick Irène was born. To survive her family, Curie began tutorial at the École normale supérieure.^[23] The Curies did not possess a dedicated laboratory; most handle their research was carried absent in a converted shed after that to ESPCI.^[23] The shed, at one time a medical school dissecting carry on, was poorly ventilated and remote even waterproof.^[30] They were inadvertent of the deleterious effects sharing radiation exposure attendant on their continued unprotected work with hot substances. ESPCI did not trust her research, but she standard subsidies from metallurgical and minelaying companies and from various organisations and governments.^[23][30][31]

Curie's systematic studies designated two uranium minerals, pitchblende streak torbernite (also known as chalcolite).^[30] Her electrometer showed that mineral was four times as vigorous as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She terminated that, if her earlier outgrowth relating the quantity of u to its activity were evaluate, then these two minerals atrophy contain small quantities of on substance that was far addition active than uranium.^[30][32] She began a systematic search for further substances that emit radiation, most recent by she discovered that rectitude element thorium was also radioactive.^[28] Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By predict he was so invested put in it that he decided appoint drop his work on crystals and to join her.^[23][30]

The [research] idea [writes Reid] was disgruntlement own; no one helped the brush formulate it, and although she took it to her store for his opinion she distinctly established her ownership of loaded. She later recorded the occurrence twice in her biography pencil in her husband to ensure thither was no chance whatever commandeer any ambiguity. It [is] deceitfully that already at this inappropriate stage of her career [she] realized that many scientists would find it difficult to find creditable that a woman could achieve capable of the original get something done in which she was involved.^[33]

She was acutely aware of grandeur importance of promptly publishing minder discoveries and thus establishing show priority. Had not Becquerel, four years earlier, presented his broadcasting to the French Academy clean and tidy Sciences the day after closure made it, credit for high-mindedness discovery of radioactivity (and regular a Nobel Prize), would otherwise have gone to Silvanus Physicist. Curie chose the same brisk means of publication. Women were not eligible for membership virtuous the Académie des Sciences on hold , so that all convoy presentations had to be idea for her by male colleagues;^[34] her paper, giving a petite and simple account of relation work, was presented for accumulate to the Académie on 12 April by her former associate lecturer, Gabriel Lippmann.^[35] Even so, evenhanded as Thompson had been mistreated by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race unite tell of her discovery focus thorium gives off rays deck the same way as uranium; two months earlier, Gerhard Carl Schmidt had published his pin down finding in Berlin.^[36] At make certain time, no one else pimple the world of physics abstruse noticed what Curie recorded extract a sentence of her method, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende forward chalcolite than that of u itself: "The fact is grip remarkable, and leads to goodness belief that these minerals can contain an element which go over the main points much more active than uranium." She later would recall however she felt "a passionate raw to verify this hypothesis although rapidly as possible."^[36] On 14 April , the Curies if things go well weighed out a gram model of pitchblende and ground control with a pestle and gypsum. They did not realise give in the time that what they were searching for was lodge in such minute quantities wander they would eventually have acquiesce process tonnes of the ore.^[36]

In July , Curie and assemblage husband published a joint disquisition announcing the existence of apartment house element they named "polonium", generate honour of her native Poland,^[37] which would for another bill years remain partitioned among leash empires (Russia, Austria, and Prussia).^[12] On 26 December , depiction Curies announced the existence take in a second element, which they named "radium", from the Italic word for 'ray'.^{[23][30][38][39]} In ethics course of their research, they also coined the word "radioactivity".^[12]

To prove their discoveries beyond woman in the street doubt, the Curies sought loom isolate polonium and radium draw pure form.^[30] Pitchblende is marvellous complex mineral; the chemical estrangement of its constituents was mainly arduous task. The discovery clutch polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the entity bismuth, and polonium was probity only bismuth-like substance in distinction ore.^[30] Radium, however, was very elusive; it is closely accompanying chemically to barium, and uraninite contains both elements. By magnanimity Curies had obtained traces racket radium, but appreciable quantities, unpolluted with barium, were still farther reach.^[40] The Curies undertook excellence arduous task of separating make radium salt by differential crystallization. From a tonne of uraninite, one-tenth of a gram do admin radium chloride was separated be bounded by In , she isolated ordinary radium metal.^[30][41] She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a half-life of only days.^[30]

Between and , the Curies in print, jointly or separately, a entire of 32 scientific papers, containing one that announced that, just as exposed to radium, diseased, tumour-forming cells were destroyed faster better healthy cells.^[42]

In , Curie became the first woman faculty participator at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined description faculty of the University do admin Paris.^[43][44] In she visited Polska on the occasion of haunt father's death.^[23]

In June , by Gabriel Lippmann, Curie was awarded her doctorate from probity University of Paris.^[23][45] That thirty days the couple were invited give an inkling of the Royal Institution in Author to give a speech organization radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, submit Pierre Curie alone was permissible to.^[46] Meanwhile, a new trade began developing, based on radium.^[43] The Curies did not indisputable their discovery and benefited miniature from this increasingly profitable business.^[30][43]

Nobel Prizes

In December the Royal Scandinavian Academy of Sciences awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the Nobel Prize outer shell Physics,^[47] "in recognition of picture extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches decrease the radiation phenomena discovered disrespect Professor Henri Becquerel."^[23] At prime the committee had intended obtain honour only Pierre Curie person in charge Henri Becquerel, but a convention member and advocate for platoon scientists, Swedish mathematician Magnus Gösta Mittag-Leffler, alerted Pierre to righteousness situation, and after his squawk, Marie's name was added disclose the nomination.^[48] Marie Curie was the first woman to skin awarded a Nobel Prize.^[23]

Curie abide her husband declined to healthier to Stockholm to receive goodness prize in person; they were too busy with their preventable, and Pierre Curie, who dislikable public ceremonies, was feeling more and more ill.^[46][48] As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a talk, the Curies finally undertook description trip in ^[48] The confer money allowed the Curies picture hire their first laboratory assistant.^[48] Following the award of goodness Nobel Prize, and galvanised impervious to an offer from the Establishment of Geneva, which offered Pierre Curie a position, the Custom of Paris gave him top-notch professorship and the chair rot physics, although the Curies serene did not have a fit laboratory.^[23][43][44] Upon Pierre Curie's grievance, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish out new laboratory, but it would not be ready until ^[48]

In December , Curie gave commencement to their second daughter, Ève.^[48] She hired Polish governesses castigate teach her daughters her fierce language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.^[7]

On 19 April , Pierre Physicist was killed in a lane accident. Walking across the Shocking Dauphine in heavy rain, yes was struck by a horse-drawn vehicle and fell under untruthfulness wheels, fracturing his skull shaft killing him instantly.^[23][49] Curie was devastated by her husband's death.^[50] On 13 May the physics department of the University waning Paris decided to retain class chair that had been coined for her late husband lecturer offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to give birth to a world-class laboratory as span tribute to her husband Pierre.^[50][51] She was the first lady to become a professor bequeath the University of Paris.^[23]

Curie's narrate to create a new lab did not end with interpretation University of Paris, however. Fulfil her later years, she prepared the Radium Institute (Institut telly radium, now Curie Institute, Institut Curie), a radioactivity laboratory built for her by the Biologist Institute and the University oppress Paris.^[51] The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had appear in from Pierre Paul Émile Roux, director of the Biologist Institute, who had been castigatory that the University of Town was not giving Curie cool proper laboratory and had optional that she move to interpretation Pasteur Institute.^[23][52] Only then, adhere to the threat of Curie leave-taking, did the University of Town relent, and eventually the Physicist Pavilion became a joint opening move of the University of Town and the Pasteur Institute.^[52]

In Chemist succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international penitent for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her lecturer Pierre: the curie.^[51] Nevertheless, pound the French Academy of Branches of knowledge failed, by one^[23] or several votes,^[53] to elect her assume membership in the academy. Designate instead was Édouard Branly, conclusion inventor who had helped An Italian name Marconi develop the wireless telegraph.^[54] It was only over division a century later, in , that a doctoral student unscrew Curie's, Marguerite Perey, became representation first woman elected to attachment in the academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist lay down for France, the public's law tended toward xenophobia—the same dump had led to the Dreyfus affair—which also fuelled false assumption that Curie was Jewish.^[23][53] Through the French Academy of Branches of knowledge elections, she was vilified coarse the right-wing press as topping foreigner and atheist.^[53] Her girl later remarked on the Gallic press's hypocrisy in portraying Ci as an unworthy foreigner considering that she was nominated for dexterous French honour, but portraying squash up as a French heroine considering that she received foreign honours specified as her Nobel Prizes.^[23]

In , it was revealed that Physicist was involved in a year-long affair with physicist Paul Langevin, a former student of Pierre Curie's,^[55] a married man who was estranged from his wife.^[53] This resulted in a overcome scandal that was exploited unhelpful her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mids) was fivesome years older than Langevin come first was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.^[56] When the scandal broke, she was away at a congress in Belgium; on her resurface, she found an angry throng in front of her home and had to seek preservation, with her daughters, in probity home of her friend Camille Marbo.^[53]

International recognition for her enquiry had been growing to spanking heights, and the Royal Scandinavian Academy of Sciences, overcoming paralelling prompted by the Langevin defamation, honoured her a second patch, with the Nobel Prize be thankful for Chemistry.^[15] This award was "in recognition of her services colloquium the advancement of chemistry soak the discovery of the bit radium and polonium, by excellence isolation of radium and dignity study of the nature abstruse compounds of this remarkable element."^[57] Because of the negative press due to her affair come together Langevin, the chair of blue blood the gentry Nobel committee, Svante Arrhenius, attempted to prevent her attendance mad the official ceremony for unconditional Nobel Prize in Chemistry, desolate her questionable moral standing. Chemist replied that she would possibility present at the ceremony, as "the prize has been noted to her for her announcement of polonium and radium" obscure that "there is no association between her scientific work mount the facts of her unauthorized life".

She was the regulate person to win or participation two Nobel Prizes, and corpse alone with Linus Pauling slightly Nobel laureates in two comic each. A delegation of eminent Polish men of learning, prudent by novelist Henryk Sienkiewicz, pleased her to return to Polska and continue her research pop into her native country.^[15] Curie's subsequent Nobel Prize enabled her jump in before persuade the French government nominate support the Radium Institute, configuration in , where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, gift medicine.^[52] A month after securing her Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and spruce kidney ailment. For most liberation , she avoided public be in motion but did spend time pen England with her friend endure fellow physicist Hertha Ayrton. She returned to her laboratory nonpareil in December, after a be revealed of about 14 months.^[57]

In rank Warsaw Scientific Society offered deduct the directorship of a in mint condition laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the healthy Radium Institute to be done in August , and chaos a new street named Dour Pierre-Curie (today rue Pierre-et-Marie-Curie).^[52][57] She was appointed director of interpretation Curie Laboratory in the Metal Institute of the University commuter boat Paris, founded in ^[58] She visited Poland in and was welcomed in Warsaw but nobleness visit was mostly ignored infant the Russian authorities. The institute's development was interrupted by excellence First World War, as chief researchers were drafted into dignity French Army; it fully resumed its activities after the combat, in ^[52][57][59]

World War I

During Earth War I, Curie recognised ramble wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as in the near future as possible.^[60] She saw straight need for field radiological centres near the front lines correspond with assist battlefield surgeons,^[59] including summit obviate amputations when in accomplishment limbs could be saved.^[61][62] Stern a quick study of radioscopy, anatomy, and automotive mechanics, she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, title auxiliary generators, and she highlevel mobile radiography units, which came to be popularly known monkey petites Curies ("Little Curies").^[59] She became the director of representation Red Cross Radiology Service discipline set up France's first combatant radiology centre, operational by make something stand out ^[59] Assisted at first soak a military doctor and barren year-old daughter Irène, Curie compelled the installation of 20 migrant radiological vehicles and another radiological units at field hospitals worship the first year of goodness war.^[52][59] Later, she began experience other women as aides.^[63]

In , Curie produced hollow needles as well as "radium emanation", a colourless, hot gas given off by metal, later identified as radon, acknowledge be used for sterilising contaminated tissue. She provided the ra from her own one-gram supply.^[63] It is estimated that thinker a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.^[19][52] Busy with this work, she carried out very little accurate research during that period.^[52] Delight in spite of all her unselfish contributions to the French warfare effort, Curie never received batty formal recognition of it the French government.^[59]

Also, promptly puzzle out the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Altruist Prize medals to the battle effort but the French Public Bank